# Esperanto Grammar Cheat Sheet: All the Rules on One Page

Source: https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/cheat-sheet/
Language: en
Updated: 2026-10-08

> Esperanto grammar cheat sheet: 11 endings, 45 correlatives, 10 prefixes, 31 suffixes and the 16 rules in tables. Print it or save it as a PDF.

This Esperanto grammar cheat sheet puts the whole grammar on one page because the language is regular: every word has a fixed ending, roots never change, and there are no irregular verbs, no grammatical gender and only one article. To print the page or save it as a PDF, use your browser's print command (Ctrl+P, or Cmd+P on a Mac).

## Alphabet and pronunciation

The alphabet has 28 letters, each with one sound, and nothing is silent: a b c ĉ d e f g ĝ h ĥ i j ĵ k l m n o p r s ŝ t u ŭ v z. The letters q, w, x and y are not part of it.

| Letter | IPA | Sounds like |
|---|---|---|
| a e i o u | [a e i o u] | Spanish or Italian vowels: pure, with no glide |
| c | [ts] | *ts* in "cats" |
| ĉ | [tʃ] | *ch* in "church" |
| g | [ɡ] | *g* in "go", never "j" |
| ĝ | [dʒ] | *j* in "jam" |
| ĥ | [x] | *ch* in Scottish "loch" |
| j | [j] | *y* in "yes" |
| ĵ | [ʒ] | *s* in "measure" |
| ŝ | [ʃ] | *sh* in "she" |
| ŭ | [w] | *w* in "how" |
| r | [r] | rolled or tapped, as in Spanish |

- **Stress** falls on the second-to-last syllable: *fa-mi-LI-o* "family", *es-pe-RAN-to*. The letters *j* and *ŭ* are not vowels, so *aj, ej, oj, uj, aŭ, eŭ* make one syllable: *ho-DI-aŭ* "today".
- **No ĉ, ĝ, ŝ on your keyboard?** Write the [x-system](https://esperantopedia.org/learn/alphabet/) (*cx, gx, sx, hx, jx, ux*). The Fundamento's own h-system is *ch, gh, sh, hh, jh, u*.

**More:** [alphabet and pronunciation](https://esperantopedia.org/learn/alphabet/).

## Word endings

The ending shows the word class or the verb form; the root before it never changes. Eleven endings do all the work.

| Ending | Function | Example | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| *-o* | noun | *libro* | "book" |
| *-a* | adjective | *nova libro* | "new book" |
| *-e* | adverb | *bone* | "well" |
| *-j* | plural | *libroj* | "books" |
| *-n* | object, direction, time, measure | *Mi legas libron.* | "I am reading a book." |
| *-i* | infinitive | *legi* | "to read" |
| *-as* | present | *mi legas* | "I read, I am reading" |
| *-is* | past | *mi legis* | "I read, I have read" |
| *-os* | future | *mi legos* | "I will read" |
| *-us* | conditional | *mi legus* | "I would read" |
| *-u* | command, wish | *legu!* | "read!" |

- **Order:** class ending, then *-j*, then *-n*. Adjectives copy the *-j* and *-n* of their noun: *novajn librojn* "new books" (object).
- **Comparison:** *pli granda ol* "bigger than", *la plej granda* "the biggest", *malpli* "less", *tiel granda kiel* "as big as".
- **No ending:** *jam* "already", *nun* "now", *tre* "very", *tro* "too", *ankaŭ* "also", *nur* "only".

**More:** [grammar overview](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/), [nouns and adjectives](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/nouns-adjectives/), [adverbs](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/adverbs/).

## The article

Esperanto has one article, *la* "the", for every gender, number and case: *la domo, la domoj, la domojn*. There is no word for "a": *domo* is "a house".

- *La* marks something known or unique: *la suno* "the sun".
- It is left out before names (*Petro, Esperanto*) and before pointing words: *mia libro, tiu domo*, normally not *la mia libro*.
- Language names in *-a* take it: *la angla* "English".

**More:** [the article la](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/article/).

## Personal and possessive pronouns

| Pronoun | Meaning | Object (-n) | Possessive (-a) |
|---|---|---|---|
| *mi* | I | *min* | *mia* "my" |
| *vi* | you (one or many) | *vin* | *via* "your" |
| *li* | he | *lin* | *lia* "his" |
| *ŝi* | she | *ŝin* | *ŝia* "her" |
| *ĝi* | it (thing, animal, baby) | *ĝin* | *ĝia* "its" |
| *ni* | we | *nin* | *nia* "our" |
| *ili* | they | *ilin* | *ilia* "their" |
| *oni* | one, people | *onin* (rare) | *onia* "one's" |
| *si* | himself, herself, itself, themselves | *sin* | *sia* "own" |

- Possessives are adjectives: *miaj libroj, mian libron*. With *la* they stand alone: *la mia* "mine".
- *Si* and *sia* point back to the subject of their clause, in the third person only: *Li lavas sin* "He washes himself", *Li lavas lin* "He washes him (another man)".
- Unofficial: *ri* "he or she" (gender-neutral). The old *ci* "thou" is almost never used.

**More:** [pronouns](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/pronouns/).

## The accusative -n

The ending *-n* marks what a verb acts on, and it also shows direction, time and measure.

| Use | Example | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| Direct object | *Mi vidas la katon.* | "I see the cat." |
| Direction (where to) | *Ŝi iras en la ĉambron.* | "She goes into the room." |
| Point in time | *Ni venos lundon.* | "We will come on Monday." |
| Measure | *Ĝi kostas dek eŭrojn.* | "It costs ten euros." |

- Adjectives, possessives and the correlatives in *-u* and *-a* copy it: *tiujn belajn katojn* "those beautiful cats" (object).
- No *-n* after *esti* "to be", *iĝi* "to become" or *ŝajni* "to seem": *Mi estas instruisto.* "I am a teacher."
- No *-n* after a preposition, except direction after a place preposition: *en la domo* "in the house", *en la domon* "into the house". *Al, el, de* and *ĝis* never take it.
- The marked object makes word order free.

**More:** [the accusative](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/accusative/).

## Verbs

A verb has one form for every person and number: *mi, vi, li, ni, ili parolas*. Six endings give all the forms, and no verb is irregular.

| Form | Ending | *paroli* "to speak" | *esti* "to be" |
|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | *-i* | *paroli* | *esti* |
| Present | *-as* | *mi parolas* "I speak" | *estas* "am, is, are" |
| Past | *-is* | *mi parolis* "I spoke, have spoken" | *estis* "was, were" |
| Future | *-os* | *mi parolos* "I will speak" | *estos* "will be" |
| Conditional | *-us* | *mi parolus* "I would speak" | *estus* "would be" |
| Command, wish | *-u* | *parolu!* "speak!" | *estu* "be!" |

- An unreal "if" sentence uses *-us* in both halves: *Se mi havus tempon, mi venus.* "If I had time, I would come."
- After verbs of wanting and asking, *ke* takes *-u*: *Mi volas, ke vi venu.* "I want you to come."
- The passive is *esti* plus a passive participle, with *de* for the doer: *La letero estas skribita de Anna.* "The letter is written by Anna."
- *-ig-* makes a verb that takes an object, *-iĝ-* one that does not: *sidi* "to sit", *sidigi* "to seat someone", *sidiĝi* "to sit down".

**More:** [verbs](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/verbs/).

## Participles

Six participle suffixes show the phase of an action. The vowel gives the phase (*a* ongoing, *i* finished, *o* coming), and *n* marks the active voice.

| | Ongoing (a) | Finished (i) | Coming (o) |
|---|---|---|---|
| **Active** | *-ant-*: *leganta* "reading" | *-int-*: *leginta* "having read" | *-ont-*: *legonta* "about to read" |
| **Passive** | *-at-*: *legata* "being read" | *-it-*: *legita* "read, finished" | *-ot-*: *legota* "to be read" |

- **Endings:** *-a* adjective (*la dormanta infano* "the sleeping child"), *-e* adverb (*Legante, mi lernas.* "While reading, I learn."), *-o* person (*lernanto* "pupil", *Esperanto* "one who hopes").
- **Compound tenses:** *esti* plus a participle: *Mi estis manĝanta* "I was eating", *Mi estas manĝinta* "I have eaten", *La pordo estas fermita* "The door is closed".

**More:** [participles](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/participles/).

## Correlatives: the 45 table words

Five beginnings joined to nine endings give 45 words. Read each one as beginning plus ending: *neni-* + *-am* = *neniam* "never".

| Ending | **ki-** (question) | **ti-** (that) | **i-** (some) | **ĉi-** (every) | **neni-** (no) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| **-o** thing | *kio* what | *tio* that | *io* something | *ĉio* everything | *nenio* nothing |
| **-u** person, one of many | *kiu* who, which | *tiu* that one | *iu* someone | *ĉiu* everyone, each | *neniu* no one |
| **-a** kind | *kia* what kind of | *tia* such | *ia* some kind of | *ĉia* every kind of | *nenia* no kind of |
| **-e** place | *kie* where | *tie* there | *ie* somewhere | *ĉie* everywhere | *nenie* nowhere |
| **-el** manner | *kiel* how | *tiel* so, thus | *iel* somehow | *ĉiel* in every way | *neniel* in no way |
| **-am** time | *kiam* when | *tiam* then | *iam* sometime | *ĉiam* always | *neniam* never |
| **-om** amount | *kiom* how much | *tiom* so much | *iom* some, a little | *ĉiom* all of it | *neniom* none |
| **-al** reason | *kial* why | *tial* therefore | *ial* for some reason | *ĉial* for every reason | *nenial* for no reason |
| **-es** owner | *kies* whose | *ties* that one's | *ies* someone's | *ĉies* everyone's | *nenies* no one's |

- **-j and -n:** words in *-u* and *-a* take both (*kiujn, tian*), *-o* words take *-n* (*kion*), *-e* words take *-n* only for direction (*kien*), and the rest never change.
- **ki-** words also open relative clauses and indirect questions: *la viro, kiu venis* "the man who came".
- **ĉi** adds "this": *tiu ĉi* or *ĉi tiu*, *ĉi tie* "here". **ajn** adds "-ever": *kiu ajn* "whoever". **da** follows amounts: *kiom da mono* "how much money".

**More:** [all 45 correlatives](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/correlatives/).

## Numbers

There are thirteen basic words, and they take no *-j* or *-n* (except *unu* meaning "some": *unuj … aliaj*): *nul* 0, *unu* 1, *du* 2, *tri* 3, *kvar* 4, *kvin* 5, *ses* 6, *sep* 7, *ok* 8, *naŭ* 9, *dek* 10, *cent* 100, *mil* 1000. Numbers written together multiply, numbers written apart add.

| Number | Esperanto | Logic |
|---|---|---|
| 12 | *dek du* | 10 + 2 |
| 20 | *dudek* | 2 × 10 |
| 23 | *dudek tri* | 2 × 10 + 3 |
| 1987 | *mil naŭcent okdek sep* | 1000 + 9 × 100 + 8 × 10 + 7 |
| 2000 | *du mil* | thousands stay separate |
| 1 000 000 | *unu miliono* | a noun; *miliardo* is 10⁹ |

| Form | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| *-a* | ordinal | *unua* "first", *tria* "third", *dudek-unua* "twenty-first" |
| *-e* | adverb | *unue* "firstly" |
| *-obl-* | multiple | *duobla* "double" |
| *-on-* | fraction | *duono* "half", *kvarono* "quarter" |
| *-op-* | group | *duope* "in pairs" |
| *po* | each | *po tri* "three each" |
| *fojo* | times | *dufoje* "twice" |

The decimal mark is a comma: 3,5 is *tri komo kvin*.

**More:** [numbers](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/numbers/), [number converter](https://esperantopedia.org/tools/numbers/).

## Prepositions and conjunctions

Esperanto has 33 prepositions. They never change, and the noun after them keeps its basic form: *kun mi* "with me".

| Group | Prepositions |
|---|---|
| Place | *en* in, *sur* on, *sub* under, *super* above, *antaŭ* in front of, *apud* beside, *inter* between, *ekster* outside, *ĉe* at, *ĉirkaŭ* around, *tra* through, *trans* across, *preter* past, *kontraŭ* against |
| Direction, source | *al* to, *el* out of, *de* from, *ĝis* as far as |
| Time | *antaŭ* before, *post* after, *dum* during, *ĝis* until |
| Relation | *kun* with, *per* by means of, *sen* without, *por* for, *pro* because of, *pri* about, *laŭ* according to, *krom* except, *malgraŭ* despite, *anstataŭ* instead of, *de* of, by |
| Quantity | *da* of, after an amount: *glaso da akvo* "a glass of water"; *po* each |
| No fixed meaning | *je*, only when no other fits: *je la tria* "at three o'clock" |

Conjunctions never change either:

| Type | Words |
|---|---|
| Joining equals | *kaj* and, *aŭ* or, *sed* but, *nek* nor |
| Starting a clause | *ke* that, *ĉu* whether, *se* if, *ĉar* because, *kvankam* although, *dum* while, *ĝis* until, *kvazaŭ* as if, *apenaŭ* as soon as, *ol* than |

**More:** [prepositions](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/prepositions/), [conjunctions](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/conjunctions/).

## Word building

A word is (prefix) + root + (suffix) + ending: *mal·san·ul·ej·o* "hospital" (opposite + healthy + person + place + noun). In compounds the main word comes last: *vapor·ŝip·o* "steamship" is a kind of ship. Every affix is also a root: *ejo* "place", *ilo* "tool".

### Official prefixes

| Prefix | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| *bo-* | in-law | *bopatro* "father-in-law" |
| *ĉef-* | chief, main | *ĉefurbo* "capital city" |
| *dis-* | apart | *disdoni* "to hand out" |
| *ek-* | start, sudden action | *ekdormi* "to fall asleep" |
| *eks-* | former | *eksedzo* "ex-husband" |
| *ge-* | both sexes | *gepatroj* "parents" |
| *mal-* | exact opposite | *malbona* "bad" |
| *mis-* | wrongly | *miskompreni* "to misunderstand" |
| *pra-* | primeval; a generation further | *praavo* "great-grandfather" |
| *re-* | again; back | *relegi* "to reread" |

PMEG counts ten official prefixes; some lists add *fi-*.

### Official suffixes

| Suffix | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| *-aĉ-* | contempt | *domaĉo* "hovel" |
| *-ad-* | lasting or repeated action | *legadi* "to keep reading" |
| *-aĵ-* | concrete thing | *trinkaĵo* "a drink" |
| *-an-* | member, inhabitant | *klubano* "club member" |
| *-ar-* | collection | *vortaro* "dictionary" |
| *-ĉj-* | male pet name | *Joĉjo* "Johnny" |
| *-ebl-* | can be done | *manĝebla* "edible" |
| *-ec-* | quality | *beleco* "beauty" |
| *-eg-* | bigger, stronger | *domego* "mansion" |
| *-ej-* | place for | *lernejo* "school" |
| *-em-* | tendency | *timema* "timid" |
| *-end-* | must be done | *pagenda* "to be paid" |
| *-er-* | one unit of a mass | *monero* "coin" |
| *-estr-* | leader | *urbestro* "mayor" |
| *-et-* | smaller, weaker | *dometo* "cottage" |
| *-id-* | offspring | *katido* "kitten" |
| *-ig-* | to make, to cause | *purigi* "to clean" |
| *-iĝ-* | to become | *ruĝiĝi* "to blush" |
| *-il-* | tool | *tranĉilo* "knife" |
| *-in-* | female | *patrino* "mother" |
| *-ind-* | worthy of | *leginda* "worth reading" |
| *-ing-* | holder | *kandelingo* "candlestick" |
| *-ism-* | doctrine, system | *komunismo* "communism" |
| *-ist-* | professional, adherent | *instruisto* "teacher" |
| *-nj-* | female pet name | *panjo* "mummy" |
| *-obl-* | multiple | *duobla* "double" |
| *-on-* | fraction | *duono* "half" |
| *-op-* | group | *duope* "in pairs" |
| *-uj-* | container | *sukerujo* "sugar bowl" |
| *-ul-* | person with a quality | *riĉulo* "rich person" |
| *-um-* | no fixed meaning | *plenumi* "to fulfil" |

With the six participle suffixes the official affixes total 47. Others, such as *kilo-*, *tele-* and *-i-* in *Francio*, are unofficial.

**More:** [word building](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/word-building/), [prefixes](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/prefixes/), [suffixes](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/suffixes/).

## Questions and negation

| Type | Pattern | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Yes/no question | *ĉu* + the statement | *Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton?* "Do you speak Esperanto?" |
| Detail question | ki- word first | *Kie vi loĝas?* "Where do you live?" |
| Negation | *ne* before the word denied | *Mi ne komprenas.* "I don't understand." |
| Negative word | neni- word | *Neniu venis.* "Nobody came." |
| Neither, nor | *nek … nek* | *Mi volas nek kafon, nek teon.* "I want neither coffee nor tea." |

- Answers are *jes* "yes" and *ne* "no". The verb never moves, and there is no "do".
- One negative per clause: *Mi vidis nenion.* "I saw nothing." Two cancel out: *Mi ne vidis nenion* means "I saw something".

**More:** [questions and negation](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/questions-negation/).

## Word order

The default order is subject, verb, object. Because the object carries *-n*, the order can change: *La hundo mordis la katon* and *La katon mordis la hundo* both mean "The dog bit the cat".

| Element | Rule | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Preposition | before its noun | *sur la tablo* "on the table" |
| Adjective | before or after its noun | *bela domo* or *domo bela* |
| *ne, nur, eĉ, ankaŭ* | before the word they refer to | *Nur mi vidis lin.* "Only I saw him." |
| *ĉu*, ki- words | start of the question | *Ĉu vi venos?* "Will you come?" |
| *ajn* | right after its correlative | *kiu ajn* "whoever" |

**More:** [word order](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/word-order/).

## The 16 rules in one sentence each

The 16 rules of the *Fundamento* (1905) are the official core of the grammar.

1. **Article.** Only the definite *la* exists; there is no indefinite article.
2. **Nouns.** They end in *-o*, take *-j* for the plural and *-n* for the object; prepositions replace other cases.
3. **Adjectives.** They end in *-a*, agree with their noun and compare with *pli, plej, ol*.
4. **Numerals.** The basic numbers never change; the rest are joined, with *-a, -obl-, -on-, -op-* and *po*.
5. **Pronouns.** *Mi, vi, li, ŝi, ĝi, si, ni, ili, oni*; *-a* gives possessives, *-n* the object.
6. **Verbs.** They never change for person or number: *-as, -is, -os, -us, -u, -i*, six participles, passive with *esti*.
7. **Adverbs.** They end in *-e* and compare like adjectives.
8. **Prepositions.** They take the basic form of the noun.
9. **Reading.** Every word is read as written.
10. **Stress.** It falls on the second-to-last syllable.
11. **Compounds.** Join the roots; the main word comes last.
12. **Negation.** One negative word per clause is enough.
13. **Direction.** *-n* shows movement towards a place: *kie* – *kien*.
14. **Je.** When no preposition fits, use *je*, which has no meaning of its own.
15. **Foreign words.** International words keep one form in Esperanto spelling, and related words are built with Esperanto endings.
16. **Apostrophe.** A final *-o* and the *-a* of *la* may be dropped: *de l' mondo*.

**More:** [the 16 rules explained](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/16-rules/).

## Common questions

### How do I print this cheat sheet or save it as a PDF?
Press Ctrl+P (Windows, Linux) or Cmd+P (Mac), then pick a printer or "Save as PDF". The menu and footer are hidden in the printed version.

### How many endings, correlatives and affixes does Esperanto have?
There are 11 grammatical endings, 45 correlatives, 33 prepositions, 10 official prefixes, 31 official suffixes and 6 participle suffixes.

### Is Esperanto grammar really regular?
Yes. There are no irregular verbs (even *esti* follows the table), no irregular plurals and no grammatical gender, and only two cases: the basic form and the accusative.

### What does this cheat sheet leave out?
Interjections, unofficial affixes, dates, clock time and the finer points of compound tenses. See [interjections](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/interjections/), [prefixes](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/prefixes/), [suffixes](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/suffixes/) and [numbers](https://esperantopedia.org/grammar/numbers/).

## Sources

- [Fundamento de Esperanto – grammar in English (the 16 rules)](https://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/gramatiko_angla.html) – Akademio de Esperanto
- [Akademia Vortaro: explanations and statistics](https://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/akademia_vortaro/klarigoj.html) – Akademio de Esperanto (11 endings)
- PMEG: [Tabelvortoj – bazaj reguloj](https://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/tabelvortoj/bazaj_reguloj.html), [Personaj pronomoj](https://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/pronomoj/personaj.html), [Participoj](https://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/participoj/index.html), [Nombroj](https://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/nombroj/index.html), [N-finaĵo](https://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/rolmontriloj/n/index.html), [Vortordo](https://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/vortordo/index.html), [Neado](https://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/neado.html)
- PMEG: [Prefixes](https://bertilow.com/pmeg/vortfarado/afiksoj/prefiksoj/index.html), [Suffixes](https://bertilow.com/pmeg/vortfarado/afiksoj/sufiksoj/index.html), [Rolvortetoj (prepositions)](https://bertilow.com/pmeg/gramatiko/rolmontriloj/rolvortetoj/index.html)
- [Esperanto grammar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto_grammar) – Wikipedia